Paper Lecture (Sept. 21)

A lecture on paper might seem out of place for a course on Historical Techniques, but paper is an important support for a whole gamut of artworks (drawings, printmaking, sculpture etc.)

Paper is an organic product and as such is susceptible to environmental conditions and to some artists’ materials. As with many other substances to be discussed in this course, paper is no different and knowing its various properties, as well as the various kinds available to artists one can make a better-informed choice in selecting this support and also make a more knowledgeable description when submitting works of art on this carrier for exhibition/sale etc.

Background
Nomenclature related to paper:

PAPIR - used in Greek and Latin
BIBLOS - sheets of papyrus
BUBLOI - inner bark of papyrus
LIBER - inner bark of a tree

It becomes readily apparent that these words form a root for many terms in the English language such as: bibliography, Bible, library, paper etc …

Short overview of a writing/drawing surfaces that are NOT paper
- some are more obvious than others:

STONE – for example Egyptian obelisks (Rosetta stone) characters chiseled into stone
CYLINDER SEALS: used by Babylonians as means of communication.
LEAVES OF TREES: Pliny (AD 23-79) refers to Egyptians writing on palm leaves:
The use of leaves (petalon gr.) as writing surfaces gave name to “petalism” or banishment (πεταλισμός), i.e. names of people to be banished were written on olive leaves for everybody to see.
PAPYRUS: (from which paper derived its name) Surface made by lamination: stalks are cut, flattened and delicate "bands" of papyrus strips are laminated together.
METALS: brass, copper, bronze and lead were used to incise characters and images.
LEAD: Carta plumbea - Pausanias refers to tablets made of lead as this metal is very soft and easy to mark with a stylus.
BRONZE: Roman soldiers used their shields on battlefields to write their last will.
WOOD: used even before the time of Homer (9th c. B.C.). Wood was covered with a coating of chalk, wax or plaster and than scratched with stylus. Still used in Europe at the time of Chaucer.
TAPA: South Pacific, but esp. Hawaii, mulberry bush stalks are stripped of outer bark cut in half and the fine inner bark is peeled from the stalk, left to dry/bleach on the sun and subsequently beaten with mallets which makes it extend from 3-18 inches.
RICE PAPER: Formosa, cut spirally from a papyrifera tree, but like papyrus & tapa it is not macerated. (The term will be explained later).
PARCHMENT: specially treated animal skins (sheep, goat or calf are most common).
SLATE: until very recently (19th c.) children were given slate boards to write on with a stylus. The writing was easily erased and the board could be re-used hence the saying “starting with a clean slate” i.e. an opportunity to start over without prejudice.
COMPUTER: words and images can be read from a screen and/or stored for later use. Contrary to the popular predictions the use of computers did not contribute to a diminished demand for paper, on the contrary …

Historical overview

Like so many materials readily used, paper too was invented in China (gun powder, compass, porcelain just to name a few other). One Ts'ai-Lun, the Emperor’s eunuch is credited with inventing a process in 105 AD that produced a modern-type sheet of paper (except that silk fibers were used). The secret was kept for more than 500 years before paper could be produced in Japan where, by the end of the 17th century, it had become an integral part of daily life. To become a proficient papermaker a long and arduous apprenticeship from five to ten or more years was needed.

In both China and Japan paper was considered more than just a surface to write upon.
Since the earliest times paper was used for philosophical and religious writings of such savants as king Fu'tsu (Confucius) which contributed to a profound reverence for paper and for the craftsmen who produced it. (Likewise calligraphy was considered as the highest form of Chinese art). In Japan exceptional papermakers bore a title of a "National Treasure"

The knowledge of how to make paper traveled to Europe via the Silk Routs and was first introduced in countries under the Arab influence (Sicily and Spain). The first paper mill still in use today is the Fabriano Mill in Italy (founded in 1276).
Jost Amman in Der Papierer ( 1568) described the papermaking in the West which introduced a different type of screen or mould than the one used in the East (China and Japan).

BASIC WEIGHT & SIZE OF PAPER
QUIRE : old terminology, from French cahier and Latin quaternus: four sheets of paper folded together into eight leaves. The size of a quire is based roughly upon the size of one sheep skin (i.e. parchment).
QUIRE : modern terminology: 24 sheets of paper either folded or unfolded.
POST : a pile of 6 quires (24 sheets x 6 = 144) Word came into English language probably from paper mill workers originating in Germany "posten" or Italy "posto" - ultimately from Latin: positum denoting “place”. The number may vary according to the size of the sheets.

REAM - basic weight of paper. It denotes a number of sheets per unit of weight. The word possibly derived from Arabic rizmah meaning a "bundle."
This is a bit confusing as different values are assigned to a ream:
REAM is made of 20 quires or 480 sheets
REAM of drawing or handmade paper is 472 sheets
REAM of newsprint or book paper is 500 sheets
"A Perfect REAM" of printers is 516 sheets

PAPER - GENERAL DEFINITION

PAPER is obtained mostly from plant sources unless the fibers are reclaimed from rags (linen and cotton) or recycled paper. A sheet of paper consists of reconstituted macerated and disintegrated fibers. It can be hand or machine made.

Hand made paper is isotropic*.
Machine made paper is anisotropic.
This distinction is especially crucial and critical in any form of printmaking where registration is important.

* Isotropy denotes uniformity in all directions (From Greek iso equal and tropos direction. Antonym: anisotropy.


What is really paper?








The paper’s building blocks (i.e. chains) are the weakest at the oxygen link (red on the model). When the break occurs, the chains become shorter and paper becomes brittle and /or will completely disintegrates.

Cellulose - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose

Constituents of paper: the major component of paper is cellulose. Cellulose is formed of long chains of glucose units that get entangled together not unlike a bowl of spaghetti. The higher percentage of pure cellulose the better the paper. Paper made of wood pulp is of lesser quality and the least on the list is newsprint which by its very function is not designed to last.

LIGNIN – is an important part of plants, concentrated in the inner part of the cell cementing the fibers together. It provides rigidity to the fibrous wood structure, but its presence is undesirable in the finished product as it contributes to the paper’s degradation. (For example, newsprint has a high content of lignin).

TYPES OF FIBRES USED IN MAKING PAPER

• BAST FIBRES: manila hemp, bagasse, sisal, jute, flax pulp
• GRASSES: straw pulp, esparto grass, reeds
• INNER BARK: Mulberry bush (Broussonetia papyrifera)
• COTTON LINTERS: short fibers adhering to cotton seed after staple cotton has been separated.
  
• RECLAIMED FIBRES: rag paper
• RECYCLED PAPER

WASHI OR JAPANESE HAND-MADE PAPER

Japanese hand-made paper is often called rice paper, but this is wrong as it has nothing to do with rice and it should not be called as such.

FEATURES of WASHI:
1) Washi paper is stronger than even a high quality machine made paper because the fibers are much longer. It has a considerable strength even when wet (important in printmaking)
2) Hand made paper is isotropic which means that it will stretch and shrink equally in all directions thus avoid any distortions of letters and/or images.
3) Hand made paper has low inherent acidity and therefore will not photo degrade (yellow) nor physically degrade (become brittle).
4) Long fibers add to flexibility before a sheet of paper shows fatigue (i.e. breaks upon folding, crinkles, tears etc.).

MAJOR WASHI TYPES & CHARACTERISTICS
Mulberry KOZO - most common and relatively inexpensive
YAME - 100% kozo fibers
GAMPI - silky texture, rather costly
TORI-NOKO – large sizes available, with smooth surface, used for wood block printing.
MINO - (non-mino-shi; will not tear) exceptionally. long fibers. Developed during the EDO period in GIFU prefecture, considered as a national cultural property. Very strong.


PAPER MAKING and/or MANUFACTURING
Detailed description of the papermaking process in the East and West will be discussed in class accompanied with slide illustrations. Additional information can be found in D. Hunter, Papermaking, The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft, Dover Pub. 1943. The author has spent more than forty years assembling materials relating to the ancient craft of papermaking and is still considered the best authority on the topic.

Requirements:
1) Good water source
Paper production requires large amounts of water and its quality is also important. Paper mills or smaller operations are always situated near a good water source.
2) Good source of fibers

Essential equipment: papermaking mould - the most important item in papermaking:
Moulds come in basically two types: 1/ loose mould cover and 2/ fixed mould cove







Cover - made of a hardwood frame and mesh consisting of chain lines and laid lines.
In the Orient the chain lines and laid lines are made of natural fibers (bamboo etc) In the West of wire.
For identifying the age of works of art of paper it is important to know the types of moulds used For example laid lines during the Medieval period and later (until manufactured) were not uniformed as the wire was cut and not extruded/pulled
Execution: Mould can be dipped into slurry (East & West) or slurry* is poured onto the mould.
* Slurry consists of macerated paper fibers suspended in water.

PREPARING FIBRES:
1) RETTING: Mulberry branches are cut and left in water to decompose. This process is called retting. Outer bark is removed by hand. The retting is repeated for up to 2 weeks.
2) FIBRILLATION: one of the most important initial stages. The softened wood-sticks are now beaten either by hand or mechanically. For manual beating sticks and mallets are used or mortar and pestle.
For mechanical beating stampers were invented and were in use until 17th century, to be replaced by a Hollander beater which contains rotating cylinder with knives that cut the wood. Grinders were introduced by mid 19th century. They greatly sped the process, but produced a much shorter fibers resulting in a weaker paper.

PREPARING "STUFF"
Stuff or slurry are fibers suspended in water in right consistency to form a paper sheet
Half stuff: dried out slurry, to be wetted later, when needed

PRODUCTION OF ACTUAL SHEETS OF PAPER (in the West)
To produce a sheet of paper the labor is divided among distinct tradesmen

VATMAN: dips the mould into the vat full of slurry
COUCHMAN - takes the mould from the "bridge" where it was left by the vatman and inverts/couches the matted (but very wet) fibers upon a felt.
A designated number of wet sheets separated by felt form a POST (usually 144 sheets). A post is then placed in a press to squash out the excess water.

DRYING:

EAST: still wet sheets are transferred onto boards and dried on the sun.
WEST: (often due to colder climate the sheets were gathered into "spurs" (5 - 10 sheets) and were placed over cords usually placed in the loft. These sheets very often sport an imprint of the cord .

SIZING: In order for paper to be impervious to inks it must be sized, as unsized paper is too absorbent and the ink would spread in illegible mess (unless one of course wants it for aesthetic reason). For example blotting paper is also not sized.
TYPES OF SIZING: Papers are dipped into a tub full of size (glue or starch) or resins (rosin used since 1807), wax, fluorocarbons (this will make it resistant to oils, most common is the butcher’s paper) and alum Al2(SO4)3.

FILLERS: are added to change the appearance. Clay or chalk will give paper opacity and/or glossiness (see calendering).

COATING: clay, titanium dioxide, chalk, talk, starches

CALENDERING: paper goes between two stainless steel rollers which increases smoothness and imparts a gloss.

DANDY ROLL: Dandy roll is used in mechanical production of paper to give it a hand-made look by impressing it with artificial chain and laid lines and artificial watermark.

DECKLED EDGE: (from German or Dutch meaning “cover”). The deckled edge is a rough edge extending on all four sides of a sheet of paper.

WATERMARK: A design s made directly on a mould with rope or wire. In this area less fibers are deposited and the paper (when held against the light) appear more transparent. Watermarks can be very simple or rather elaborate. In the past they might have been a “sign” for illiterate tradesmen. In modern times watermarks are trade-marks of the papermakers, but for scholars also an important clue for dating as it is possible to determine almost exactly the date at which a particular watermark was incorporated into a sheet of paper.

RAGS make paper
PAPER makes money
MONEY makes banks
BANKS make loans
LOANS make beggars
BEGGARS make
RAGS
Unknown author circa 18th century, cited by D. Hunter, Papermaking

CHRONOLOGY OF PAPER TECHNOLOGY
from: Dard Hunter, Papermaking, 1943

105 AD Ts'ai Lun announced the invention of papermaking to Chinese emperor. Made chiefly from mulberry, hemp, and rags.

264 AD Earliest clearly dated paper found in China (Lou Lan) by the Swedish explorer Dr. Sven Hedin in 1901

610 AD Papermaking introduced to Japan from China.

751 AD SAMARKAND - Battle at Tavasi. Chinese prisoners extorted to reveal the secret of papermaking

784 AD Paper fabricated for the first time in Baghdad. Introduced by Harun al Rashid (766-809) who acquired skilled artisans from China.

ALONG THE SILK ROUTES PAPER COMES TO EUROPE

950 AD Earliest use of paper in Europe : SPAIN

1102 First use of paper in Sicily

1150 XATIVA, (JATIVA) Spain - first paper mill. Mill used stampers for maceration which remained in use until the invention of Hollander beater in 17th c.

1276 FABRIANO MILL - ITALY

1282 Watermarks used for the first time in Europe.

1298 Account of Marco Polo of use of paper money in China (Also first form of printing seen by European travelers).

1450-5 Guttenberg and beginning of printing. Guttenberg Bible - .

1678 William Ritterhouse establishes first paper mill in Americas.

1680 Invention of Hollander beater (for macerating)

1774 Discovery of Chlorine by L Schiel - chlorine used to bleach wood pulp

1798 First paper making machine THE FOUDRINIER inv. by J.R.ROBERT, France


Useful additional site on Papermaking

Historical Techniques course at York University

YORK UNIVERSITY: Department of Fine Arts - Visual Arts
HISTORICAL TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS OF THE ARTIST - VISA 3110.6 – 2009-2010
Course director: Srebrenka Bogovic-Zeskoski (e- mail: fineartinfo@rogers.com)
Office hours: By appointment only

This course combines formal lectures, in-class discussions and compulsory studio demonstrations/workshop.
Fall term: all students to attend formal lectures and studio demonstrations at 8:30-11:30 for the Fall term.
Spring term studio portion is divided into two groups: Group A 8:30-11:30 and group B 11:30-2:30 – Combining the two will be discussed in class.
Lectures: ACW 02, Studio: CFA 342

Description of the Course
The course concentrates on an in depth study of artists' techniques and materials in use from the Antiquity to present. (There are some exceptions regarding the spread of these dates; particulars to be discussed in class. Additional, pertinent information is also listed in the handout: Studio Booklet-Manual.
Formal lectures examine relationship between artists' creativity, essential to conceptualize a work of art, and the methods and materials by which this is attained. Both formal lectures and studio workshops are designed to give students a comprehensive knowledge of various practices and materials in use throughout diverse historical and ‘stylistic’ periods (i.e. Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque etc.) and to demonstrate their importance in formulating individual artist’s style as well as that of a distinct “schools.”
Technical information is offered on presenting/handling works of art for display/exhibitions, storage and transportation. Whenever pertinent, deterioration and subsequent conservation of works of art is discussed. Special attention is paid to toxicity of artist's materials and potentially adverse studio conditions; preventative measures and safety guidelines are offered, but also strictly implemented during the studio time. Regular participation of studio portion of the course is mandatory

Requirements
Historical Techniques is a 300-level course and therefore independent research in both the studio component and the written assignment is expected. It is obligatory, especially in the studio portion of the course, that students actively participate in discussions, exchange of ideas and in sharing individual experiences concerning their chosen Major Project assignment. Although the studio component of the course is important and mandatory it does not require previous studio experience.

Rationale of the course:
Any work of art is determined first and foremost by the materials and techniques available to the artist …
Anthea Cullen, Technique of the Impressionists, London, New Burlington Books, 1987, p.6


I believe in Michelangelo, Velasquez and Rembrandt; in the might of design, the mystery of colour, the redemption of all things by Beauty everlasting and the message of Art that had made these hands blessed. Amen.
Artist’s Credo uttered by Louise Dubedat in Bernard Shaw’s The Doctors Dilemma (1906)

To Studio Majors the course offers a comprehensive understanding of basic processes involved in making art and comprehending the nature of materials necessary to achieve this objective. The course will demonstrate how some of the traditional techniques can be successfully applied to contemporary or conceptual artmaking. Lectures are structured to learn about the historical forerunners in belief that this knowledge will greatly contribute to one’s own creativity and artistic growth. Often it is the lack of basic structural information or a lack of skill and knowledge of technical processes and materials that hinders the final results or restricts realization of one’s vision. The aim of Historical Techniques is to provide basic building blocks for a creative artistic mind.

To the Art History major the course offers a unique opportunity to try and execute a work of art without a pressure of regular art classes. It also offers a different type of building blocks: knowledge and confidence to visually identify major techniques (tempera, oil, encaustic etc.), to understand why one technique “looks and feels” so very different than the other. Various trade routes and even armed conflicts which governed the availability of materials will be discussed to show how circumstances influenced the development of a specific artists’ technique or style. This knowledge can be productively applied to their respective fields of future research or work (curatorship, museology, conservation etc.).


ACCREDITATION: "Historical Techniques" can be used either as a Studio or an Art History credit. Students must declare their choice in writing when submitting their selection for studio project(s) see under "Contracts."