MATERIALS USED FOR EXECUTING DRAWINGS

GLUES - GELATINS
N.B. In English language glue and adhesive are not interchangeable; glue refers to the natural product (aqueous) while adhesive usually refers to a synthetic product (i.e. n on aqueous).
Glue is an organic colloidal substance of varying appearance, chemical constitution and physical properties. Prepared from animal products: sinews, bones, skin, cartilage, tendons, hoofs; most contain collagen (gelatin and chondrin). Collagen (or ossein) under the influence of boiling changes into gelatin. Overcooking, however will destroy ability to gel upon cooling. Chondrin is obtained from skin, tendons and bones.

Short historical overview
Egypt: glue was found in the tomb of Queen Hatshepsut XVIII B.C. Pliny refers to glue as one of the vehicles for painting of ancient Egyptians, even the Bible mentions glue in Ecclesiastes: He that teachet a fool is like one that glueth a potsherd together. During the Middle Ages glue is used extensively, in addition to other media (glair and egg tempera) for manuscript illumination. During the Early Renaissance (especially Flanders and Germany) glue is used for the execution of a so-called "Tuschelein" paintings. The medium was a type of distemper: a mixture of dry pigment and size (glue) as a binder.
Manufacturing: . The earliest practical manufacturing of glue occurred in Holland in the 17th century (during the reign of William III). . Shortly afterwards it was introduced in England (1700) and in France (Lyon) which were the major factories of this kind in Europe.
Desirable properties: viscosity, jelly strength and adhesion. A glue to be acceptable as artist’s material should be pale in colour, free of fats, pH neutral (around 7, but never under 5.5 or above 8, good glue is pH 6.7-7), foam as little as possible and not have unpleasant odour.
Problems: glue is hygroscopic and it will swell and shrink according to the RH. It is also susceptible to mould growth and insect attack. Some additives will alter the glue’s behavior. Alum (potassium alum sulfate KAl(SO4)2•12 H20) will increase viscosity and the presence of common salts will ensure that glue remains liquid when cold. In old workshops urine was added with the same results. Glue is an ideal nutrient for bacteria and will putrefy rapidly. Fetid glue liquefies by its own acid decomposition products. Fetid glue is of no use as a binder, or for gesso, but is often used by gilders as a gilder’s liquor.
Gelatin is a pure form of glue formed by heating collagen (80°-90°C), which is the major ingredient of bones, cartilage, tendons and skin. It is a nearly colourless, transparent, amorphous substance. In its normal dry state (c. 15-18% H20) is flexible and horny. Precipitated from alcohol or salts it is white and water free. Gelatin is typical colloid and it swells to many times its normal volume when immersed in water. Starts to dissolve at 40°C , above 70°C it starts to decompose and its adhesive qualities are greatly reduced.
Rabbit Skin Glue (RSG) is made from skins of rabbits or hares. It shows great flexibility, although it has a slightly poorer adhesive properties than bone glue. Originally made in France from skin clippings - a by-product of felt industry.
The most widely known manufacturers are TOTIN FRERES-PARIS, whose seal is impressed in each of their glue tablets.
Parchment glue is made from parchment clippings, also glove cuttings. And is considered as a finer type of glue.
Isinglass glue is a gelatinous semitransparent substance obtained by cleaning and drying the swimming bladders of sturgeon, cod, hake, and other fishes. Isinglass is obtained mainly from Russia, but also from the United States, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia, the West Indies, and the Philippines. It is rather costly and mostly used when gilding directly on glass. It is the most flexible of all types of glue and was valued by ancient icon painters.

Casein, an organic compound belonging to the class of proteins. It is a valuable medium used by painters for centuries. Like most proteins it is amphoteric - it functions as acid and as base. Casein is prepared from skimmed milk which is heated to c. 30°C and to which hydrochloric acid is added which precipitates calcium caseinate. Mixing milk curds with alkali such as lime yields one of the strongest glues used since Antiquity. Casein powder: only finely ground lactic acid casein is suitable for painting. Used in wall painting as fresco secco and as casein tempera it becomes non-soluble upon drying. Sometimes it is added to egg tempera to increase the insolubility.

GUMS
Term: “gums” is applied to a number of non-crystalline, structurless substances, of vegetable origin (exudations of trees and shrubs). They consist essentially of hydrates of carbon and are either soluble in cold water, or swell in water if left for some time (resins neither dissolve, nor swell in water, hence the designation such as "gum mastic" is a misnomer and confusing). Gums are insoluble in alcohols and do not melt (like resins) upon heating, but char. Historically gums were most likely used for a very long time. Theophilus Presbyter (approx. 1070-1125) gives an account of usage of gum instead of sun-dried oil in his treatises Schedula (Hawthorne, J.G. and C.S. Smith, Theophilus: On Divers Arts, University of Chicago Press, 1963; reprinted New York: Dover Publications 1979).

Gum arabic
Gum produced by several species of acacia growing in North America, Sudan and Senegal. The best grade for artists' use is from Senegal: Acacia Senegal (grows to 20ft in height). A better grade is obtained from cultivated trees, than from the natural which exhibits better density and adhesiveness and contains a smaller amount of mineral impurities. Chemical composition: arabin; a mixture of arabic acid salts and free arabic acid (C12H22O11). Gum arabic is marketed in form of “tears”, which are colourless or slightly yellow/reddish lumps and break with vitreous fracture. Resin does not and therefore this too is a way to distinguish one from another. Gum arabic dissolved in cold water should not leave any residue.
Common recipe: 1 part/volume of gum to 2 p/vol of water, left to dissolve overnight. This is a stock solution, which may be diluted as needed. Gum solutions tend to turn sour, and commercial made gum arabic contains preservatives.
A. H. Church (The Chemistry of Paints and Painting, London, 1915, p.93)recipe: 28 gr of gum dissolved by slowly adding to 54 mil of boiling water. When all is dissolved the liquid is left to stand for a day and decanted. (A small amount of antiseptic/fungicide may be added).
Strasbourg MSS 14/15th cent. recipe: Powder 1/2 oz (14 gr) of gum arabic. Pour water over it (one finger deep) and leave overnight to soften. Mix, add white myrrh* (one setit). The medium should be as thick as oil. (V.& R. Borradaile, The Strasburg manuscript, a medieval painters handbook, Verlag Georg D.W. Callwey, Munchen, n.d.
* Myrh is obtained from species of Commiphora type of bush, native to North Africa, which yields a reddish-brown oleo-gum-resin that has antiseptic properties.

Gum tragacanth comes from thorny shrubs of genus Astraghalus that grow mostly in Greece, Crete, Iran and Asia Minor. Unlike gum arabic it must be wetted by alcohol before it can be dissolved in water. Chemical composition: carbon, hydrogen & oxygen of complex constitution called bassorin. The gum consists of: starch, cellulose and a large portion of mucilage, which swells in cold water, but does not dissolve, thus must be strained through a cloth. Only 2-3% of gum makes a fairly thick solution. Gum tragacanth has unique properties: it does not contain a great binding strength on its own, but it can bind 8-10X as much pigment as gum arabic therefore is sought after as a major binder for pastels and crayons. It is quite more expensive than gum arabic.

MODERN BINDER: Methyl Cellulose
If cellulose is changed to methylcellulose a water soluble adhesive is formed. Cellulose methyl ether is produced by treating cellulose from wood or cotton with an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, followed by methyl chloride. The resulting product is a white granular solid, soluble in cold water but insoluble in hot water. It is used as a thickening agent for aqueous preparations and as a substitute for natural gums, and particularly as a stabilizer in emulsions. But because it is very easy to achieve a smooth, even paste it has become very popular.
Recipe/preparation: place powder to swell in cold water (methyl cellulose will NOT dissolve in hot water), for 1-15 min, shake vigorously in the jar. The result is translucent, viscous "paste" that may be thinned with water. It is a major modern binder for pastels for which solutions of different strength/concentration are prepared. The choice of solution will depend upon the type of pigment/inert filler used.

M-1 (stock) solution: 350 ml cold water + 7 gr methyl-cellulose. Let stand overnight!
M - 2 solution: 175 ml of M-1 solution + 350 ml of water
M - 3 solution: 175 ml of M-2 solution + 350 ml of water
M - 4 solution: 175 ml of M-3 solution + 350 ml of water
M - 5 solution: 175 ml of M-4 solution + 350 ml of water

RECIPES – PASTELS: Mix dry ingredients first. Add gradually the liquid until stiff paste is achieved. Roll into shape between absorbent paper and leave to dry.
Recipes for certain pigments are given in: Watrous, The Craft of the Old Masters, Madison, Wisc., 1957
Raw Sienna or Yellow ochre: 1 measure dry pigment, 1 measure ball clay, water
Burnt Sienna: 1 measure dry pigment, 1 measure kaolin/ball clay, M-2 solution
Burnt Umber: 1 measure dry pigment, 1 measure calcium carbonate (whiting), water
Titanium White:1 measure dry pigment, 1 measure ball clay, water
Black I: 1 measure Mars black pigment, 1/4 measure ball clay, water
Black II: carbon black dry pigment, gum arabic solution (1 oz gum arabic: 8 fl. oz. water)
Black III: carbon black dry pigment, starch solution (1/4 oz starch: 8 fl oz water)
Venetian red: 3 measures dry pigment ("Light Red"), 1/8 measure kaolin, water


CRAYONS
A great ambiguity exists in the use of the term “crayon’ as it is applied to a variety of materials and implements. (see Blog on: Chalks: red, black and white) Ideally the term “crayon” should refer to a colour stick made either with oily, waxy or greasy binding medium. It is the “fattiness” that distinguishes crayons from pastels. Historically it is difficult to establish the beginning of crayon production. The earliest reference can be found in Leonardo’s manuscript, but since Leonardo experimented with many different techniques and materials this does not necessarily suggest a wider usage.

Basic recipes: RED CRAYONS (will resemble the modern conté)
I. 1/ Mix the following ingredients while in dry state (ratios are given in “volume”):
2 measures burnt sienna dry pigment, 1/2 measure cadmium red, 1/4 measure Venetian red, 3 measures ball clay (or kaolin)
2/ Grate 7 grams of a good dry soap (Ivory). Dissolve it in 30 mill. of warm water to obtain a creamy consistency (All flakes must be dissolved completely).
3/ Mix dry materials and soap solution into a paste and roll into cylinders.

II.
1/ Soak 1 gr. of powdered gum arabic in 1 tsp of water.
2/ Soak 71/2 grams of grated soap (IVORY) in a 1 tsp. of water.
3/ Mix the liquid ingredients together and add 28 gr. of Venetian red dry pigment to form a paste.

FOR FATTY CRAYONS:
BLACK
Melt together over a low heat 28 gr of tallow (beef fat), 14 gr of pure beeswax
Take 14 gr of tallow/beeswax mixture and add 1 to 2 tsp of turpentine. Warm it over a low fire until it has melted and the turpentine is thoroughly incorporated. Add 28 gr of ivory black dry pigment> Mix it well and pour it into a metal or porcelain mould to harden.
RED: as above, but replace the black pigment with “Venetian red” (red earth)

Rubeniste vs. Poussiniste controversy

Generally speaking what distinguishes drawing from a painting in broadest terms is the accent on the descriptiveness of the line rather than the expressiveness of the colour. Having said that there is just as many "drawings" and as many "paintings" that do not satisfy this definition.

To answer the proverbial question: What was first, the drawing or the painting? one has to search within the human's earliest pictorial expressions. The Paleolithic caves of Altamira, Lescaux and others are profusely decorated with images of animals as well as "abstract" pictograms. The images of animals are presented as a simple outline, most likely done with a piece of carbonized twig, or are coloured in with various shades of naturally available clays (i.e. earth pigments). If these example can be applied to answer the posed question than one has to concede that both modes of expression existed side by side commanding equal importance.

The schism between drawing and painting regarding their importance was more apparent during the Medieval times when drawings seldom existed as an independent artistic work, satisfying mostly a utilitarian character. They illustrated various daily implements or simple contraptions, or were used as a starting point for a more ambitious painting or sculptural projects. Preliminary drawings were often submitted to a patron before contracts were signed for larger commissions. During the Renaissance the status of the drawing dramatically changed; it slowly evolved from the subordination to the other forms of art and took on a more elevated and independent character.

The other question equally debated and equally difficult to answer was: What is more important design or colour?

Giorgio Vasari (1511 –1574) divides his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects into disegno and colore and the excellence in disegno was considered a goal… to which every artist should aspire to. This was further expounded by the rivalry between the School of Venice to which colore was ascribed as a major force, and the school of Tuscany for which drawing was the underlying force. Vasari didn’t completely disregard artists that were colorists, but still considered the drawing as more intellectually challenging and requiring more skill. His views will inadvertently shape the opinions of art critics throughout the history of art, practically to the time of the Impressionists.

Rubénistes vs Poussinistes

The two factions Rubénistes and Poussinist took their names after painters Peter Paul Rubens(1577-1640) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). Rubenistes advocated that colour is the essence of life and nature and at least of equal importance to the design. The Poussinistes considered that the intellectual appeal of a painting was afforded by the presence of clarity, logic, and order, inspired by the classical art from Greek and Roman antiquities. The great controversy developed in France in 1670's and culminated during the mid-1800s. The establishment, the Academy, sided with the Poussinistes and promoted the supremacy of draughtsmanship and design over the painting. However the Rubenistes triumphed with the acceptance in 1712 of Watteau, a supreme colourist, as a full member of the Academy. Moreover his special style was recognized by giving it a particular term: fêtes galantes.

An overall acceptance of colour by artists and public alike didn’t also include a scientific understanding how it actually stimulates our senses, nor how different colours interact one upon another. Until practically nineteenth century it was considered that every object has a 'true' colour and little attention has been paid to other influences, such as different illumination, interaction of colour, physical distance of objects etc.

In 1839 a very important work was published: The principles of Colour Contrasts, by Michel Eugène Chevreul (1786-1889), Professor of Chemistry at the tapestry makers Manufacture des Gobelins. (see: Birren, Faber, History of Colour in Painting, Van Nostrand Reinhold, N.Y. 1965). This seminal work basically expressed, what painters knew intuitively: the greatest colourists have always obtained the maximum brilliance with a minimum of colour. John Ruskin (1819-1900) further postulated that in a painting one can change a certain colour by altering its surround rather than actually modifying it.

Drawing Techniques and Materials, Lecture Oct. 5

The Craft of Old-Master Drawings, by James Watrous is still the most comprehensive publication on the subject and is available for purchase on the Internet at: uwpress.wisc.edu/books/1945.htm

Charcoal: Charcoal is probably the earliest drawing implement picked up by man/artist and is still very much in use today. It is equally suitable for fine small drawings as for a large scale mural compositions. Charcoal is prepared from different types of wood which are subjected to “carbonisation” or incomplete combustion. The preferred woods are willow, linden and some fruit trees such as plum and pear. Black chalk and charcoal drawings are sometimes confused, but their distinctiveness is easily determined under magnification: charcoal powder is much lighter than the powder produced by chalk and therefore it usually settles within the interstices of the paper while the chalk stroke leaves mounds on the peaks of paper’s grain.

Natural chalks: Historically three natural chalks were used by artists: red, black and white for the highlights. They were made from coloured earths which had enough pigment density and even distribution to produce a uniformed and intense stroke. When the deposits of these chalks run out a fabricated version was produced which eventually increased the number of available hues; these chalks are known as chalk pastels (not to be confused with oil-pastels).

Natural red chalk: The proliferation of red chalk drawings attests to the popularity and a wide use of this artist’s material. The chromatic strength of the chalk is derived from a form of iron oxide (Fe₂O₃, basically a formula for rust) but in a form of a mineral hematite (from Greek word for blood). Baldinucci (1624 –1697) in his dictionary of art and technical terms (Vocabolario Toscano dell'Arte del Disegno, 1681, reprinted 1976, p. 92) referred to hematite as a source for natural chalk.

Natural chalk comes under a variety of names (here only the most common are mentioned, for a full list see Watrous, p.94): matita rosa, appiso, red-oaker, crayon rouge, and sanguine.

Natural red chalk was not as friable as charcoal, nor does it have a great value range. It was suitable for small scale drawings and sketches that required limited modeling. In many drawings it was used alone, but it was also combined with black (for deeper tones) and white (for highlights). By the eighteenth century the red chalk was used less and less as the sources of good quality chalk became scarce. The newly found deposits yielded chalk that was gritty and uneven in consistency which prompted the fabrication of a red stick with a similar characteristics. Today the reasonable replacement for red chalk is a sanguine conté crayon.

Natural black chalk: Natural black chalk was used at the same time as the red chalk and was most popular during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. Its principal ingredients were carbon (carbonaceous shale) and clay. The inferior quality of chalk was used by tradesmen (masons, stonecutters etc.) Black chalk was less friable than charcoal so it was better suited for a more linear style drawings. In the nineteenth century the use of black chalk declined in favour of a graphite pencil. The modern replacement for a black chalk is black conté crayon.

Natural white chalk: Two types of natural white chalk existed; one was a variety of calcium carbonate and the other was a variety of soapstone (tailor’s chalk) and/or talc. Cennino recommends using taylor’s chalk for sketching directly onto canvas. But the principal function of all white chalks was to be used in conjunction with other drawing materials to introduce highlights as a modeling device. It is very difficult to distinguish fabricated and natural white chalk.

Natural chalks of other colours: Chalks of other colours were of minor importance in the history of drawing. Wad (manganese oxide) yielded a rich brown chalk while light red-brown was obtained from brick clays.

Fabricated chalks: pastels

Basically fabricated chalks or pastels are made by mixing a colorant (pigment) with adhesive or a medium. In addition, some recipes for certain pigments may also require a bulking agent or additive. For the difference to natural chalks, fabricated chalks can now be obtained in a wide range of colours and tints, as well as, texture and hardness. Fabricated chalks were known since sixteenth century and Lomazzo, (1538–1600) in his treatises (Trattato dell’ arte della pittura, scoltura et architettura, Milano 1585, pp.192-193 - York Library has e-version in English) called such drawing a pastello.

Binding media used to produce fabricated chalks was varied and such substances as sugar, whey, fig milk, beer, honey oatmeal water etc. were used, in addition to gum arabic, gum tragacanth, animal glue, starch and plaster of Paris. The recipes had to be adjusted according to the chosen binder and selected pigment. Various pigments have inherent binding strengths and it was enough to produce a good pastel by mixing them with water only. The most common additives are bentonite, ball clay or pipe clay, plaster of Paris and chalk (calcium carbonate). Please note: We are going to make pastels in the York studio by using methylcellulose as a binder (recipes in Watrous pp 125-6). Methylcellulose is a chemical compound derived from cellulose. It is soluble in cold water (N.B.: NOT in hot) forming a clear viscous solution or gel. Various strengths are prepared to make pastels depending, as mentioned above, upon the choice of pigments.

Crayons

Crayons can be dry (i.e. friable like pastels) or greasy and viscous. The later also come under the technical name conté or conté-crayon. To produce conté crayon ordinary soap or gum arabic is used as a binder. For a more fatty crayon tallow and beeswax is used as a binder. (Recipes in Watrous pp. 128-9). The word is derived from French crayon, from craie meaning chalk.

Metal point drawing

Fine media: with minimal gradation possible. The only drawing technique that requires surface preparation. During the Medieval period metal point was used to execute preparatory drawings for manuscript illuminations on parchment carrier. Metal point was also used by merchants to record various transactions and prices of their ware, hence graphite pencil is often referred to as a "lead pencil."

Cennino Cennini (c. 1370 – c. 1440) in Il Libro dell’arte manuscript gives a detailed account of surface preparation for metal point (lead white and linseed oil or chalk, ground calcined bones in animal glue solution). At that time such tablets served to apprentices to practice their drawing skills as paper was rather costly.

Metal point was also used by the Renaissance artists (Northern Europe and Italy) for preparatory drawings. In the Decameron (or Prencipe Galeotto, 1350) by Giovanni Boccaccio (Fifth Story, p. 457), he mentions Giotto (1267 –1337) ... whole of creation that he could not depict with his stylus, pen, or brush. And so faithful did he remain to Nature… that whatever he depicted had the appearance, not of a reproduction, but of the thing itself …

Metal point technique declined in the 16^th century when it was replaced by a more forgiving and a more expressive technique.

Materials: stylus and prepared surface (monochromatic or slightly coloured)

The most common material for stylus was silver, but lead, tin, copper and even gold wires were used. In our class silver wire will be used, set in some kind of a holder (wood, or a mechanical pencil holder).

Carrier: thicker paper, cardboard, parchment or a panel (solid wood or plywood)

Ground: very similar to gesso ground: chalk, slaked Plaster of Paris or lead white pigment in animal glue. Gesso is applied warm to the surface, left to dry and then polished. The surface, once dry, must not be too soft to be scored by stylus, but must allow stylus to glide effortlessly over it. If a surface is too hard no mark will be left by a stylus.

Colour can be achieved by either applying a wash or by mixing a chosen pigment with dry ingredients before adding glue.

Silver point strokes are light gray, but soon oxidation of silver takes place and a deep metallic sheen and darker value is achieved. However pressure will not produce a deeper values which can be achieved by limited hatching and cross hatching. Metal point strokes have even less textural substance than a modern, hard, graphite pencil, therefore the technique is mostly linear and the line very fine and uniformed.

Graphite

Metallic stylus and graphite sticks produce visually a very similar mark which contributed to the confusion by calling a graphite pencil also a lead pencil. In addition, the word “pencil” in the treatises of the 14^th and later centuries, refers to "artist's paintbrush" (from Fr. pinceau and Latin penicillus literary meaning "little tail ") and not to the modern connotation of the word.

In sixteenth century a big deposit of natural graphite was found in Cumberland, England and which for almost three centuries supplied artists of Europe with this material. Natural graphite could be fashioned into a fine pointed stick placed in a holder (porte-crayon) or was used as a big lump for larger drawings. By mid eighteenth century, for political reasons, the export of graphite to Europe all but stopped and the French government encouraged various researches to find a reasonable substitute. Nicolas-Jacques Conté experimented with inferior graphite available in Frnce and in 1795 fashioned a precursor of today’s modern pencil. In order to obtain a variety of hardness a range of additives were mixed with crushed graphite. A soft graphite pencil is friable enough to produce soft, broad strokes, but still not as effective as charcoal or black chalk. In addition it is easy to overwork graphite drawing producing dull monotonous greyness of tones. Graphite is more suited when a simple linear effect is sought.

Pen and ink

Historically two implements were used in “pen & ink” drawings. A pen, which is actually a quill (from Greek pteron i.e. wing and via Latin penna i.e. feather) and a reed (a generic botanical term denoting numerous tall, grass-like plants of wetlands).

The best quills are made from the primary flight feathers of a goose (but swan and raven feathers were also used). Quill appealed to artists since it could be sharpened to a fine point or blunted for a wider strokes. The small knife used to sharpen the quill is still today called a pen-knife. Because of its very nature (the shaft is of a similar composition as a human nail) the quill glides with a lot less effort over paper than a modern steel pen.

Reed was probably used already in Antiquity, but during the medieval and Renaissance period its broad marks were not suitable for a fine strokes required by the manuscript illuminators. Reed drawings are easily recognized not only by a bolder, but also by a shorter strokes since it cannot hold as much ink as the quill.

Metal pens were manufactured at the end of eighteenth century. The very material makes them more sturdy and permanent: after continuous writing the fine point hardly changed.

Inks

Inks, if they are to be used for pen or brush drawing must flow evenly and therefore its colorant must be of extremely fine texture or be prepared from a “bodiless” dyes.

Historically four inks were used by artists: black carbon ink, iron-gall ink, also known as common ink, bistre and sepia. Numerous medieval treatises record recipes for preparing ink, especially iron-gall.

Black carbon ink: This ink probably has the longest history and was prepared by the ancient Egyptians and Chinese. Black carbon ink consists of exceptionally fine carbon particles suspended in water. There was a need for additional binding medium which was derived from various gums and/or glues. Black pigment was obtained from soot of burning oils or resins, charcoal of wood, calcined bones and ivory, calcined stones of various fruits (peach being the most common). Chinese ink or India-ink was imported from the Orient. (Modern Chinese and India-inks tend to clog the pens because they contain shellac or resin which also makes them reasonably waterproof. These inks are used mostly for drafting.) Carbon ink offers a whole range of values from jet-black to delicate gray washes.

Iron-gall ink, common ink: during the medieval period this ink was used more often for writing then for drawing. Leonardo was the first to have mentioned its use for drawing (MacCurdy, E., The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, II., N.Y. 1938, p. 173). Iron gall is produced by cooking crushed gall-nuts (growths on oak trees caused by oak wasps ) and mixing the obtained liquid rich in tannic and gallic acid with ferrous sulphate. Fresh ink is purple-grey, but will darken upon exposure to air. After a number of years the ink again changes into brownish colour. Because of the high acid content many iron-gall ink drawings and writings exhibit paper or parchment degradation.

Bistre ink: Bistre ink is generally brown in colour and is obtained by extracting soluble tars from wood soot. The term “bistre” is of French origin and first time is mentioned in the sixteenth century (Watrous, p.74). The soluble tars were generally extracted by boiling the soot or grinding it with wine (i.e. vinegar) and then diluting it with water. The liquid is filtered to obtain a clear and transparent ink. Further boiling intensifies the depth of colour. This ink does not require any binder, but if gum arabic is added its lustre is increased. Bistre was a preferred ink, especially during the Baroque period, artists were attracted by its glowing and almost radiant colour.

Sepia ink: There is not much reference of artists using sepia ink prior to the nineteenth century. Sepia was obtained from a “camouflage” liquid expelled by cuttlefish and squid when threatened. Unfortunately the term “sepia” is often applied to any aqueous brownish artist’s colour, as well as to "antique" photographs.

DRAWING - INTRODUCTION – GENERAL Lecture: Sept. 28

Quotes on Drawing:

Gerhard of Brugge, 1674...

" The art of drawing may justly be called bearing mother of all arts and sciences whatever.....the art of drawing is the beginning and the end, or finisher of all things imaginable.

What is drawing?

Dictionary definitions tend to be exclusive and usually mention "delineation by pencil, pen or crayon" but disregard other media such as silverpoint, brush etc. Drawing is often identified as being “graphic” which suggests that the colour is secondary.

Most drawings explore the difference between what we know and what we see. This notion is well defined by Matisse: one sees tomato differently if one is going to paint it or eat it! If the artist is going to eat the tomato he/she will see it like everybody else.

There is also a perceived difference between the way an artist would approach a drawing as opposed an amateur. Artist records visual relationships between points, lines, spaces, and tones. Information is selected from chaotic mass of visual information, processed and often re-organized into a new visual idiom. Amateur is more compelled to record the visual reality. Depending on skill and talent an amateur is more likely to give an accurate rendering of objects, i.e. tree, dog, house etc.

Terminology: the word disegno prior to the Trecento meant generally a “project.” In the early Quattrocento it was understood as a drawing or a design “drawn up” or drafted to serve as a model. Disegno and modello were often used synonymously, especially in legal documents/contracts until “disegno” was understood as a “drawing” and “modello’ as a “plastic model.” Disegno implied drawing as a technique to be distinguished from colouring, but also as a creative idea made visible through a sketch. Leonardo considered disegno not only a science, but also a "deity", because it offered a replica of all the visible works of God. (look up Neo Platonic Philosophy which took from Plato the idea that the object of one’s senses is as real as tangible objects that can be actually touched.)

1/ Pre-Renaissance role of drawing:

Major concept of drawing up to Medieval times was informative. Drawing is usually a copy of something and the style is very accurate. The emphasis is upon a single outline - which usually provides the most precise information:

• identification
• decoration
• structure

Late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance (especially in Italy) drawing is often an autonomous work of art, and starts to exist in its own right.

READING A DRAWING

LEONARDO: In drawing consider three things: first the position of the eyes that see, second the position of the object seen, third the position of the light that illuminates the object.

In analyzing and assessing a drawing (regardless of the aesthetic value-judgment the following questions could be of use: How does the eye travel over a line?

• quickly over some
• slowly over others
• forced to make abrupt stops?
• continues over a great length uninterrupted
• implies a sense of motion?
• does it have a quality of "free-hand" or denotes a feeling of a "copy" (Copy often shows “hesitations”)

The function of light and dark (positive and negative space

• line exists only by a contrast of light and dark
• areas of gray soften the transition
• placement of lightest and darkest areas affect the degree of contrast seen between them

CONTRAST: Contrast can create a sense of: movement, weight, touch (tactile) and space.

TERMINOLOGY: point, shape, tone (creating the effect of light and shade), chiaroscuro, contour (outline), cross-section (Henry Moore often uses it), dragging (brushing dry), stippling (using tip (pen or brush) to produce texture etc.

Initial technical choices to be considered before executing a drawing :

• wet vs. dry (or a combination)
• broad (brush, ink etc) vs. fine (pen, quill, metal point)
• colour vs. monochrome

1) carrier:

• flexible (paper)
• rigid (board, cardboard)

2) surface:

• monochromatic
• coloured
• coloured establishing a mid-tone

3) scale of the drawing

4) amount of detail:

• contour
• chiaroscuro
• hatching/cross-hatching

5) purpose

• preliminary sketch for a client
• preparatory drawing for a project
• end unto itself

Drawing Classification:

• fine drawing media
• broad drawing media,
• overlapping of the two is common

Implements:

The "feel" and visual impact of the drawing will depend greatly upon the implements used:

• metal point - the fineness of the implement dictates intricate movements resulting in small works
• charcoal, encourages the artist to work in broad sweeps and the works are conceived on a broader scale.
• pen and/or brush are implements that had to be replenished or filled will give a different quality of line than the line produced with graphite or chalk which provide an interrupted supply of medium.

Dry Technique: requires a mechanical bonding between colourant and support, i.e. the abrasive action of surface and friable quality of a colourant. The colorant lies loosely lodged between interstices of substrate or is deposited onto the surface and held in place by way of electrical charges. The latter causes a great likelihood that the colorant will be partly lost through life of the object. To minimize the losses fixatives are often used but they drastically alter the drawing’s visual/aesthetic qualities.

Wet technique: the colorant is either suspended in a liquid medium or it is a dye. The solution must have a particular intensity and fluidity (especially if pen is used). The binder is either inherent or is added.

Suggested reading on drawing vs. painting see: Marsha Morton, “Malerei und Zeichnung:: The History and Context of Max Klinger’s Guide to the Arts”, Zeitschrift fü r Kunstgeschichte, 58 Bd.,H.4(1995), pp. 542-569 Publ. by Deutcher Kunstverlag GmbH Munchen, Berlin.

ACADEMY AND DRAWING: Academies of Art, especially the French Academy, later, the Ecole des Beaux Arts placed emphasis on training intellectual abilities and being able to draw was the basic requirement to achieve a status of “artist”. One aspect of art instruction was without reproach: drawing a human body occupied a central role - and no artist could avoid proficiency in this field.

The Florentine Accademia del Disegno (founded in 1560's) had the following curriculum:

• Mathematics: was considered a foundation of knowledge, as a means to rationalize the external world. Mathematics would give artist a “key” for comprehending the world around him.
• Anatomy & drawing the figure from life
• Natural philosophy
• Study of inanimate forms: drapery etc...

N.B.: no mention of painting instructions.

Paper Lecture (Sept. 21)

A lecture on paper might seem out of place for a course on Historical Techniques, but paper is an important support for a whole gamut of artworks (drawings, printmaking, sculpture etc.)

Paper is an organic product and as such is susceptible to environmental conditions and to some artists’ materials. As with many other substances to be discussed in this course, paper is no different and knowing its various properties, as well as the various kinds available to artists one can make a better-informed choice in selecting this support and also make a more knowledgeable description when submitting works of art on this carrier for exhibition/sale etc.

Background
Nomenclature related to paper:

PAPIR - used in Greek and Latin
BIBLOS - sheets of papyrus
BUBLOI - inner bark of papyrus
LIBER - inner bark of a tree

It becomes readily apparent that these words form a root for many terms in the English language such as: bibliography, Bible, library, paper etc …

Short overview of a writing/drawing surfaces that are NOT paper
- some are more obvious than others:

STONE – for example Egyptian obelisks (Rosetta stone) characters chiseled into stone
CYLINDER SEALS: used by Babylonians as means of communication.
LEAVES OF TREES: Pliny (AD 23-79) refers to Egyptians writing on palm leaves:
The use of leaves (petalon gr.) as writing surfaces gave name to “petalism” or banishment (πεταλισμός), i.e. names of people to be banished were written on olive leaves for everybody to see.
PAPYRUS: (from which paper derived its name) Surface made by lamination: stalks are cut, flattened and delicate "bands" of papyrus strips are laminated together.
METALS: brass, copper, bronze and lead were used to incise characters and images.
LEAD: Carta plumbea - Pausanias refers to tablets made of lead as this metal is very soft and easy to mark with a stylus.
BRONZE: Roman soldiers used their shields on battlefields to write their last will.
WOOD: used even before the time of Homer (9th c. B.C.). Wood was covered with a coating of chalk, wax or plaster and than scratched with stylus. Still used in Europe at the time of Chaucer.
TAPA: South Pacific, but esp. Hawaii, mulberry bush stalks are stripped of outer bark cut in half and the fine inner bark is peeled from the stalk, left to dry/bleach on the sun and subsequently beaten with mallets which makes it extend from 3-18 inches.
RICE PAPER: Formosa, cut spirally from a papyrifera tree, but like papyrus & tapa it is not macerated. (The term will be explained later).
PARCHMENT: specially treated animal skins (sheep, goat or calf are most common).
SLATE: until very recently (19th c.) children were given slate boards to write on with a stylus. The writing was easily erased and the board could be re-used hence the saying “starting with a clean slate” i.e. an opportunity to start over without prejudice.
COMPUTER: words and images can be read from a screen and/or stored for later use. Contrary to the popular predictions the use of computers did not contribute to a diminished demand for paper, on the contrary …

Historical overview

Like so many materials readily used, paper too was invented in China (gun powder, compass, porcelain just to name a few other). One Ts'ai-Lun, the Emperor’s eunuch is credited with inventing a process in 105 AD that produced a modern-type sheet of paper (except that silk fibers were used). The secret was kept for more than 500 years before paper could be produced in Japan where, by the end of the 17th century, it had become an integral part of daily life. To become a proficient papermaker a long and arduous apprenticeship from five to ten or more years was needed.

In both China and Japan paper was considered more than just a surface to write upon.
Since the earliest times paper was used for philosophical and religious writings of such savants as king Fu'tsu (Confucius) which contributed to a profound reverence for paper and for the craftsmen who produced it. (Likewise calligraphy was considered as the highest form of Chinese art). In Japan exceptional papermakers bore a title of a "National Treasure"

The knowledge of how to make paper traveled to Europe via the Silk Routs and was first introduced in countries under the Arab influence (Sicily and Spain). The first paper mill still in use today is the Fabriano Mill in Italy (founded in 1276).
Jost Amman in Der Papierer ( 1568) described the papermaking in the West which introduced a different type of screen or mould than the one used in the East (China and Japan).

BASIC WEIGHT & SIZE OF PAPER
QUIRE : old terminology, from French cahier and Latin quaternus: four sheets of paper folded together into eight leaves. The size of a quire is based roughly upon the size of one sheep skin (i.e. parchment).
QUIRE : modern terminology: 24 sheets of paper either folded or unfolded.
POST : a pile of 6 quires (24 sheets x 6 = 144) Word came into English language probably from paper mill workers originating in Germany "posten" or Italy "posto" - ultimately from Latin: positum denoting “place”. The number may vary according to the size of the sheets.

REAM - basic weight of paper. It denotes a number of sheets per unit of weight. The word possibly derived from Arabic rizmah meaning a "bundle."
This is a bit confusing as different values are assigned to a ream:
REAM is made of 20 quires or 480 sheets
REAM of drawing or handmade paper is 472 sheets
REAM of newsprint or book paper is 500 sheets
"A Perfect REAM" of printers is 516 sheets

PAPER - GENERAL DEFINITION

PAPER is obtained mostly from plant sources unless the fibers are reclaimed from rags (linen and cotton) or recycled paper. A sheet of paper consists of reconstituted macerated and disintegrated fibers. It can be hand or machine made.

Hand made paper is isotropic*.
Machine made paper is anisotropic.
This distinction is especially crucial and critical in any form of printmaking where registration is important.

* Isotropy denotes uniformity in all directions (From Greek iso equal and tropos direction. Antonym: anisotropy.


What is really paper?








The paper’s building blocks (i.e. chains) are the weakest at the oxygen link (red on the model). When the break occurs, the chains become shorter and paper becomes brittle and /or will completely disintegrates.

Cellulose - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose

Constituents of paper: the major component of paper is cellulose. Cellulose is formed of long chains of glucose units that get entangled together not unlike a bowl of spaghetti. The higher percentage of pure cellulose the better the paper. Paper made of wood pulp is of lesser quality and the least on the list is newsprint which by its very function is not designed to last.

LIGNIN – is an important part of plants, concentrated in the inner part of the cell cementing the fibers together. It provides rigidity to the fibrous wood structure, but its presence is undesirable in the finished product as it contributes to the paper’s degradation. (For example, newsprint has a high content of lignin).

TYPES OF FIBRES USED IN MAKING PAPER

• BAST FIBRES: manila hemp, bagasse, sisal, jute, flax pulp
• GRASSES: straw pulp, esparto grass, reeds
• INNER BARK: Mulberry bush (Broussonetia papyrifera)
• COTTON LINTERS: short fibers adhering to cotton seed after staple cotton has been separated.
  
• RECLAIMED FIBRES: rag paper
• RECYCLED PAPER

WASHI OR JAPANESE HAND-MADE PAPER

Japanese hand-made paper is often called rice paper, but this is wrong as it has nothing to do with rice and it should not be called as such.

FEATURES of WASHI:
1) Washi paper is stronger than even a high quality machine made paper because the fibers are much longer. It has a considerable strength even when wet (important in printmaking)
2) Hand made paper is isotropic which means that it will stretch and shrink equally in all directions thus avoid any distortions of letters and/or images.
3) Hand made paper has low inherent acidity and therefore will not photo degrade (yellow) nor physically degrade (become brittle).
4) Long fibers add to flexibility before a sheet of paper shows fatigue (i.e. breaks upon folding, crinkles, tears etc.).

MAJOR WASHI TYPES & CHARACTERISTICS
Mulberry KOZO - most common and relatively inexpensive
YAME - 100% kozo fibers
GAMPI - silky texture, rather costly
TORI-NOKO – large sizes available, with smooth surface, used for wood block printing.
MINO - (non-mino-shi; will not tear) exceptionally. long fibers. Developed during the EDO period in GIFU prefecture, considered as a national cultural property. Very strong.


PAPER MAKING and/or MANUFACTURING
Detailed description of the papermaking process in the East and West will be discussed in class accompanied with slide illustrations. Additional information can be found in D. Hunter, Papermaking, The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft, Dover Pub. 1943. The author has spent more than forty years assembling materials relating to the ancient craft of papermaking and is still considered the best authority on the topic.

Requirements:
1) Good water source
Paper production requires large amounts of water and its quality is also important. Paper mills or smaller operations are always situated near a good water source.
2) Good source of fibers

Essential equipment: papermaking mould - the most important item in papermaking:
Moulds come in basically two types: 1/ loose mould cover and 2/ fixed mould cove







Cover - made of a hardwood frame and mesh consisting of chain lines and laid lines.
In the Orient the chain lines and laid lines are made of natural fibers (bamboo etc) In the West of wire.
For identifying the age of works of art of paper it is important to know the types of moulds used For example laid lines during the Medieval period and later (until manufactured) were not uniformed as the wire was cut and not extruded/pulled
Execution: Mould can be dipped into slurry (East & West) or slurry* is poured onto the mould.
* Slurry consists of macerated paper fibers suspended in water.

PREPARING FIBRES:
1) RETTING: Mulberry branches are cut and left in water to decompose. This process is called retting. Outer bark is removed by hand. The retting is repeated for up to 2 weeks.
2) FIBRILLATION: one of the most important initial stages. The softened wood-sticks are now beaten either by hand or mechanically. For manual beating sticks and mallets are used or mortar and pestle.
For mechanical beating stampers were invented and were in use until 17th century, to be replaced by a Hollander beater which contains rotating cylinder with knives that cut the wood. Grinders were introduced by mid 19th century. They greatly sped the process, but produced a much shorter fibers resulting in a weaker paper.

PREPARING "STUFF"
Stuff or slurry are fibers suspended in water in right consistency to form a paper sheet
Half stuff: dried out slurry, to be wetted later, when needed

PRODUCTION OF ACTUAL SHEETS OF PAPER (in the West)
To produce a sheet of paper the labor is divided among distinct tradesmen

VATMAN: dips the mould into the vat full of slurry
COUCHMAN - takes the mould from the "bridge" where it was left by the vatman and inverts/couches the matted (but very wet) fibers upon a felt.
A designated number of wet sheets separated by felt form a POST (usually 144 sheets). A post is then placed in a press to squash out the excess water.

DRYING:

EAST: still wet sheets are transferred onto boards and dried on the sun.
WEST: (often due to colder climate the sheets were gathered into "spurs" (5 - 10 sheets) and were placed over cords usually placed in the loft. These sheets very often sport an imprint of the cord .

SIZING: In order for paper to be impervious to inks it must be sized, as unsized paper is too absorbent and the ink would spread in illegible mess (unless one of course wants it for aesthetic reason). For example blotting paper is also not sized.
TYPES OF SIZING: Papers are dipped into a tub full of size (glue or starch) or resins (rosin used since 1807), wax, fluorocarbons (this will make it resistant to oils, most common is the butcher’s paper) and alum Al2(SO4)3.

FILLERS: are added to change the appearance. Clay or chalk will give paper opacity and/or glossiness (see calendering).

COATING: clay, titanium dioxide, chalk, talk, starches

CALENDERING: paper goes between two stainless steel rollers which increases smoothness and imparts a gloss.

DANDY ROLL: Dandy roll is used in mechanical production of paper to give it a hand-made look by impressing it with artificial chain and laid lines and artificial watermark.

DECKLED EDGE: (from German or Dutch meaning “cover”). The deckled edge is a rough edge extending on all four sides of a sheet of paper.

WATERMARK: A design s made directly on a mould with rope or wire. In this area less fibers are deposited and the paper (when held against the light) appear more transparent. Watermarks can be very simple or rather elaborate. In the past they might have been a “sign” for illiterate tradesmen. In modern times watermarks are trade-marks of the papermakers, but for scholars also an important clue for dating as it is possible to determine almost exactly the date at which a particular watermark was incorporated into a sheet of paper.

RAGS make paper
PAPER makes money
MONEY makes banks
BANKS make loans
LOANS make beggars
BEGGARS make
RAGS
Unknown author circa 18th century, cited by D. Hunter, Papermaking

CHRONOLOGY OF PAPER TECHNOLOGY
from: Dard Hunter, Papermaking, 1943

105 AD Ts'ai Lun announced the invention of papermaking to Chinese emperor. Made chiefly from mulberry, hemp, and rags.

264 AD Earliest clearly dated paper found in China (Lou Lan) by the Swedish explorer Dr. Sven Hedin in 1901

610 AD Papermaking introduced to Japan from China.

751 AD SAMARKAND - Battle at Tavasi. Chinese prisoners extorted to reveal the secret of papermaking

784 AD Paper fabricated for the first time in Baghdad. Introduced by Harun al Rashid (766-809) who acquired skilled artisans from China.

ALONG THE SILK ROUTES PAPER COMES TO EUROPE

950 AD Earliest use of paper in Europe : SPAIN

1102 First use of paper in Sicily

1150 XATIVA, (JATIVA) Spain - first paper mill. Mill used stampers for maceration which remained in use until the invention of Hollander beater in 17th c.

1276 FABRIANO MILL - ITALY

1282 Watermarks used for the first time in Europe.

1298 Account of Marco Polo of use of paper money in China (Also first form of printing seen by European travelers).

1450-5 Guttenberg and beginning of printing. Guttenberg Bible - .

1678 William Ritterhouse establishes first paper mill in Americas.

1680 Invention of Hollander beater (for macerating)

1774 Discovery of Chlorine by L Schiel - chlorine used to bleach wood pulp

1798 First paper making machine THE FOUDRINIER inv. by J.R.ROBERT, France


Useful additional site on Papermaking

Historical Techniques course at York University

YORK UNIVERSITY: Department of Fine Arts - Visual Arts
HISTORICAL TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS OF THE ARTIST - VISA 3110.6 – 2009-2010
Course director: Srebrenka Bogovic-Zeskoski (e- mail: fineartinfo@rogers.com)
Office hours: By appointment only

This course combines formal lectures, in-class discussions and compulsory studio demonstrations/workshop.
Fall term: all students to attend formal lectures and studio demonstrations at 8:30-11:30 for the Fall term.
Spring term studio portion is divided into two groups: Group A 8:30-11:30 and group B 11:30-2:30 – Combining the two will be discussed in class.
Lectures: ACW 02, Studio: CFA 342

Description of the Course
The course concentrates on an in depth study of artists' techniques and materials in use from the Antiquity to present. (There are some exceptions regarding the spread of these dates; particulars to be discussed in class. Additional, pertinent information is also listed in the handout: Studio Booklet-Manual.
Formal lectures examine relationship between artists' creativity, essential to conceptualize a work of art, and the methods and materials by which this is attained. Both formal lectures and studio workshops are designed to give students a comprehensive knowledge of various practices and materials in use throughout diverse historical and ‘stylistic’ periods (i.e. Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque etc.) and to demonstrate their importance in formulating individual artist’s style as well as that of a distinct “schools.”
Technical information is offered on presenting/handling works of art for display/exhibitions, storage and transportation. Whenever pertinent, deterioration and subsequent conservation of works of art is discussed. Special attention is paid to toxicity of artist's materials and potentially adverse studio conditions; preventative measures and safety guidelines are offered, but also strictly implemented during the studio time. Regular participation of studio portion of the course is mandatory

Requirements
Historical Techniques is a 300-level course and therefore independent research in both the studio component and the written assignment is expected. It is obligatory, especially in the studio portion of the course, that students actively participate in discussions, exchange of ideas and in sharing individual experiences concerning their chosen Major Project assignment. Although the studio component of the course is important and mandatory it does not require previous studio experience.

Rationale of the course:
Any work of art is determined first and foremost by the materials and techniques available to the artist …
Anthea Cullen, Technique of the Impressionists, London, New Burlington Books, 1987, p.6


I believe in Michelangelo, Velasquez and Rembrandt; in the might of design, the mystery of colour, the redemption of all things by Beauty everlasting and the message of Art that had made these hands blessed. Amen.
Artist’s Credo uttered by Louise Dubedat in Bernard Shaw’s The Doctors Dilemma (1906)

To Studio Majors the course offers a comprehensive understanding of basic processes involved in making art and comprehending the nature of materials necessary to achieve this objective. The course will demonstrate how some of the traditional techniques can be successfully applied to contemporary or conceptual artmaking. Lectures are structured to learn about the historical forerunners in belief that this knowledge will greatly contribute to one’s own creativity and artistic growth. Often it is the lack of basic structural information or a lack of skill and knowledge of technical processes and materials that hinders the final results or restricts realization of one’s vision. The aim of Historical Techniques is to provide basic building blocks for a creative artistic mind.

To the Art History major the course offers a unique opportunity to try and execute a work of art without a pressure of regular art classes. It also offers a different type of building blocks: knowledge and confidence to visually identify major techniques (tempera, oil, encaustic etc.), to understand why one technique “looks and feels” so very different than the other. Various trade routes and even armed conflicts which governed the availability of materials will be discussed to show how circumstances influenced the development of a specific artists’ technique or style. This knowledge can be productively applied to their respective fields of future research or work (curatorship, museology, conservation etc.).


ACCREDITATION: "Historical Techniques" can be used either as a Studio or an Art History credit. Students must declare their choice in writing when submitting their selection for studio project(s) see under "Contracts."